Um ein wenig Licht ins dunkle zu bringen:
"Epilogue: Fukushima
Instability and self destructioni
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]There is a legend in English folklore about Canute, a wise king[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]of England and Scandinavia (1016-1035). His flattering courtiers[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]told him that he was '[FONT=TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT, cursive]So great, he could command the tides of the[/FONT][/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif][FONT=TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT, cursive]sea to go back[/FONT]'. But he knew his own limitations -- even if his[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]courtiers did not -- so he had his throne carried to the seashore[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]and sat on it as the tide came in, commanding the waves to[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]advance no further. When they did not, he had made his point[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]that, though the deeds of kings might appear great in the minds[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]of men, they were as nothing in the face of nature. As with the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]sea, so with radiation; it is nature and science that determine the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]effect of radiation and its safety, not political authority. Just[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]following safety regulations is no substitute for achieving some[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]understanding.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]On 11 March 2011 a magnitude-9 earthquake struck the northeast[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]coast of Japan and generated a tsunami that completely[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]devastated a wide coastal area. The death toll was 15,247 with[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]8,593 missing (as at 27 May) and over 100,000 properties were[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]completely destroyed [62]. All eleven nuclear reactors at four[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]nuclear power plants in the region that were operating at the time[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]of the earthquake immediately shut down exactly as designed. In[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the aftermath of the subsequent tsunami three nuclear reactors at[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the Fukushima Daiichi plant destroyed themselves and released[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]radioactive material into the environment. The accident was[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]declared to be 'severity 7', the maximum on the nuclear accident[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]scale, the same as Chernobyl -- but Chernobyl was quite[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]different; its reactor was not shut down, there was no[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]containment structure to inhibit the spread of radioactivity and[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the entire reactor core was exposed to the open air with a[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]graphite fire that burned and contributed further heat to 'boil off'[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]and send all volatile material high into the atmosphere.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]So what happened to these reactors at Fukushima [63]? The[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]4 Epilogue: Fukushima[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]description 'shut down' means that the neutron flux was reduced[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]to zero and all nuclear fission ceased. Although there was never[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]any risk of a nuclear fission explosion -- a nuclear bomb -- heat[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]continued to be produced by radioactive decay, initially at 7% of[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]full reactor power and falling to ½% within a day. This 'decay[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]heat' is a feature of every fission reactor, as described in Fig. 22,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]and the Fukushima reactors were provided with many ways to[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]disperse this heat without releasing radioactivity into the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]environment. At the time of the accident the tsunami deprived[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the reactors of power -- connections to the electrical utility were[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]severed, emergency diesel generators were flooded and back-up[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]batteries were exhausted after a few hours. As a result the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]cooling systems failed and the reactor cores became too hot and[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]started to melt. In addition the pressure in the reactor[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]containment vessels rose beyond their design strength. To[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]prevent complete rupture it was necessary to reduce this pressure[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]by venting steam including some volatile radioactive material,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]largely iodine and caesium. The released gas also included some[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]hydrogen which exploded (chemically) in the air, blowing the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]roof off the outermost cladding of the buildings and hurling some[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]contaminated debris around the plant and its neighbourhood.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]However, it would seem that these explosions did not involve[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]any further release of activity as they were external to the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]primary containment vessel.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Of the dispersed radioactive elements, iodine-131 is known to be[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]dangerous because it causes thyroid cancer if ingested by[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]children who have not taken prophylactic iodine tablets. In Japan[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]these tablets were made available, unlike at Chernobyl (see[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]chapter 6). Since the activity of iodine-131 halves every eight[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]days following cessation of nuclear fission, there was no iodine[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]in the spent fuel ponds. Nevertheless the cooling of these storage[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]ponds and their potential radioactive discharges have been an[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]additional focus of attention. Radioactive caesium -- particularly[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]caesium-137 which has a half-life of 30 years -- was released in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]significant quantities both at Fukushima and at Chernobyl.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Outside the plant at Chernobyl there were no fatalities that can[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]be attributed to radioactivity (other than iodine) and therefore[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Instability and self destructioni 5[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]none attributable to caesium. Indeed it is a curious fact that at[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Fukushima, in spite of the intense media interest in the radiation,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]while the tsunami killed thousands, the radiation killed none, and[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]is unlikely to do so in the future. [After six weeks 30 workers[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]had received a radiation dose between 100 and 250 milli-sievert[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif][63]. At Hiroshima and Nagasaki 41 people contracted radiationinduced[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]cancer in 50 years out of 5949 who received a dose in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]this range -- that is 1 in 150 (Table 5). At Chernobyl no[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]emergency worker who received less than 2,000 milli-sievert[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]died from Acute Radiation Syndrome (Fig. 9b).][/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]The powerful self destruction of the reactors at Fukushima has[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]made arresting media headlines that have been closely followed[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]by predictable promises of increased safety by the authorities.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Modern reactor designs include more safety features than those[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]at Fukushima and spending many millions of dollars on[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]protecting a reactor against self destruction has always been a[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]major element of its design and construction. But the record[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]shows that human lives are far less at risk in nuclear than in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]conventional accidents -- at Windscale (0), Three Mile Island (0),[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Chernobyl (50) or Fukushima (0) than at Piper Alpha (167),[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Bhopal (3,800) or the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (11). The[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]distinction would seem to be the simple legacy of fear associated[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]with nuclear radiation. Distance is no barrier to alarm and fear;[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]press reports of traces of activity from Fukushima detected as far[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]away as Scotland, often failed to note the miniscule level found.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Such reports sometimes have serious consequences; following[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Chernobyl, statistics for births in Greece published in the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]medical literature showed evidence for nearly 2,000 extra[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]induced abortions attributed to the perceived threat [64]. Instead[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]of spending large sums on appeasing fears by isolating people[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]from radiation yet further in the name of safety, resources should[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]be spent on real public education about nuclear radiation and its[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]benefits for mankind.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Within days of the accident at Fukushima the media had[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]exhausted their ability to described the size of the radiation[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]threat, so spread panic rather than information. As a result many[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]6 Epilogue: Fukushima[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]people fled Tokyo by plane and train. The cause was the fear that[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]nuclear radiation engenders, rather than any knowledge of the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]radiation effect itself. Over-cautious radiation safety limits,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]enshrined in regulation in Japan as elsewhere, caused apparently[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]incomprehensible information to be given by the authorities. For[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]example, the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]electric utility company responsible for Fukushima, said that in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the week of the 4 April it had released 10,400 tons of slightly[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]contaminated water into the sea and that, although this contained[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]100 times the legal limit for iodine-131, this level would be safe,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]and that eating fish and seaweed caught near the plant every day[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]for a year would add some 0.6 mSv to the dose above natural[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]background [63]. These statements are probably true but their[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]apparent mutual contradiction is a source for understandable[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]alarm. This contradiction would not have occurred if the legal[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]limits had been set to match a level As High As Relatively Safe[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif](AHARS) instead of As Low As Reasonably Achievable[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif](ALARA), a difference of a factor of 1000 or so.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]However the story is not yet over and the task of containing the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]fuel and keeping it cool continues. Water, so essential to the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]cooling task, has become contaminated and must be filtered.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Even with the use of robots the management of these tasks is[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]daunting. Although the current position [4 June 2011] may not[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]improve for some months yet, it is worth noting that at[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Chernobyl the fuel was open to the sky at high temperature so[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]that the fate of the cooling water became irrelevant.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Much attention has been given to pointing a finger at who is to[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]blame for the accident at Fukushima. For many TEPCO is seen[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]as the villain. But I argue that this is unreasonable; those who[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]live in Japan accept a very unstable geological environment. In[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the tsunami other buildings and plant were swept away[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]completely, but the Fukushima Daiichi plant survived. It seems[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]that the nuclear plant was able to withstand an earthquake well[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]beyond its design and with a few changes it would have[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]withstood the tsunami too, for instance, a better site, a higher sea[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]wall and protected diesel generators. Indeed the other reactors in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Instability and self destructioni 7[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Japan did so with little or no damage. With hindsight it is easy to[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]find measures that could have been taken, but why should[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]nuclear safety be treated as exceptional? Nobody died from[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]failure of nuclear safety but they died in tens of thousands from[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]failure of general protection against the effect of a tsunami, about[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]which there is far less comment [66]. This blame game arises[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]from a preference to pin responsibility on someone rather than to[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]sit down and think carefully about what happened -- and whether[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]a nuclear radiation incident is worse than a tsunami. In more[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]stable parts of the world these natural forces represent no hazard[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]to a nuclear plant in any event. However, irrational fear and a[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]loss of trust in fellow human beings and the organisations for[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]which they are responsible show the presence of instabilities in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]society, just as earthquakes show geologically unstable regions.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]International reactions to Fukushima have indicated that many[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]countries suffer from such instability, whether through[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]inadequate public education, uninformed political leadership or a[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]lack of readiness among individuals to learn about the science[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]that affects their lives. In every community a few members of[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]society should find out and others should trust them. Mutual trust[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]is essential for human survival and there is no reason to treat[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]nuclear radiation safety as a special case.[/FONT]
Explanation or appeasement
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]A lack of public information and over-cautious radiation[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]regulations, mis-interpreted as danger levels, caused widespread[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]despair and misery at Chernobyl where the enforced evacuation[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]at short notice of the local agricultural population to distant and[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]unfamiliar accommodation was responsible for serious social[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]damage; the consequences of this dislocation have been[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]emphasised in recent reports [12]. The nuclear accident[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]highlighted the fractures inherent in Soviet society and when[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Gorbachev reflected on the disaster it was the socio-economic[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]earthquake of the end of the Soviet era that he saw. Abroad, the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]over-cautious regulations based on appeasing public opinion[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]caused serious economic damage, as admitted, for instance, in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the press by the authorities in Sweden in 2002 [28].[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]8 Epilogue: Fukushima[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]At Fukushima too there has been damage to families,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]communities and the economy caused by the evacuation on top[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]of the destruction and death from the tsunami. The exposure[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]level (20 milli-sievert per year) used to define the evacuation[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]zone is too low and large numbers of people have been evacuated[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]who should not have been displaced. The criterion for such[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]invasive socio-economic surgery should be set relatively high,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]perhaps up to 100 milli-sievert per month, which is still some[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]200 times smaller than the monthly dose rate received by the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]healthy tissue of patients on a course of cancer therapy.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Evidently concerns for human health based on ALARA are out of[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]balance with concerns for human health applied in clinical[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]medicine. At Fukushima, as at Chernobyl, the principal threat to[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]health has come from fear, uncertainty and enforced evacuation,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]not from radiation. In Japan official caution about radiation has[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]damaged many lives and generated extra socio-economic cost,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]misery, recrimination and loss of trust in authorities.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]We need better public explanation and realistic safety standards.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Currently these are set on the advice of the International[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Committee for Radiological Protection (ICRP) “[FONT=TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT, cursive]based on (i) the[/FONT][/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT, cursive]current understanding of the science of radiation exposures and[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT, cursive]effects and (ii) value judgements. These value judgements take[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif][FONT=TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT, cursive]into account societal expectations, ethics, and experience[/FONT]” [65].[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]In the past ICRP has followed opinion rather than leading it, a[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]mistaken approach given the state of popular understanding of[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]radiation derived from the primitive picture left by last century's[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]political propaganda. After Chernobyl the chairman of ICRP[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]admitted that the approach of extra caution had failed (see final[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]pages of chapter 6). The ICRP has been urged to revise its[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]approach by academic national reviews [21,22] and others [41].[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Accordingly, it should now show some leadership; safety levels[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]should be revised in the light of modern radiobiology and[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]supported with programmes of public re-education -- some in the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]community are quite bright and welcome reasoned explanation.[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]The new levels should be as high as is relatively safe (AHARS)[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]rather than as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA). For their[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]sakes we need to educate young people for the dangers of the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]Explanation or appeasement 9[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]21st century, not shackle them with the misunderstandings of the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]20th. In a world of other dangers -- earthquakes, global warming,[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]economic collapse, shortages of jobs, power, food and water --[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the expensive pursuit of the lowest possible radiation levels is in[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif]the best interest of no one."[/FONT]
Quelle: Wade Allison - Radiation and Reason (Chapter 11)